Rabies is a fatal viral infection that attacks the central nervous system of mammals, including humans, leading to severe neurological dysfunction. Rabies continues to be a serious concern worldwide, including within the CIS countries. A comprehensive approach is essential to achieve and sustain freedom from rabies. On May 12, 2016, the Intergovernmental Council for Veterinary Cooperation of the Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS) tasked the Federal Centre for Animal Health with developing a draft Joint Action Plan for the CIS Member States on Rabies Prevention and Control, to cover the period through 2025. The set was developed and approved by the decision of the Council of Heads of the CIS Government on June 1, 2018. This paper reviews the implementation results of the Joint Action Plan to 2025 and presents the subsequent plan for 2025–2030, developed with the primary goal of mitigating the risk of rabies outbreak spread throughout the CIS members.

Introduction. Rabies remains one of the most dangerous zoonotic diseases. The Republic of Belarus is affected by animal rabies and the disease is reported in all regions of the country.

Objective. The work was aimed at assessment of rabies situation in the Republic and summarizing up-to-date approaches to the disease diagnosis and prevention.

Results. Current data on rabies situation in animals and humans in the Republic of Belarus are presented. In the Republic of Belarus, rabies is commonly reported in wildlife and both the country territory and its neighbouring countries (Poland, Lithuania, Latvia, Ukraine, Russia). Wild carnivores, foxes, raccoon dogs and wolves are the main reservoir of rabies virus (70% of all reported cases). Domestic carnivores (cats, dogs) are the second rabies reservoir, and sporadic rabies cases are also reported in livestock animals. The main activities of the Veterinary and Sanitary-Epidemiological Service of the Republic of Belarus, including specific rabies prevention in domestic carnivores, oral rabies vaccination of wild carnivores and public awareness campaigns are described in the paper, historical and modern data on the vaccination and its effectiveness, main strategies laid down in the Comprehensive Rabies Prevention Plan for 2021–2025 as well as data on the effectiveness of the specific activities included in the plan are presented.

Conclusion. In the Republic of Belarus, rabies remains a significant concern, particularly in wild animals. Key rabies control measures primarily involve the oral vaccination of wild animals and public awareness campaigns. To achieve a sustained reduction in rabies cases in wild and domestic animals and to minimize human exposure risks, the areas of wildlife oral vaccination shall be expanded, domestic carnivore vaccination programs shall be intensified and their control shall be enhanced.

Introduction. Sylvatic rabies cases characterized by a consistently high incidence among wild and domestic animals are reported in the Russian Federation. The epizootic cycle of rabies is maintained through the biological reservoir of Lyssavirus rabies in wild canid predators, primarily the red fox (Vulpes vulpes). Fox ecology and behavior determine the spatial spread of rabies, its seasonal incidence patterns, and the species composition of animals involved in the epizootic cycle. Objective. The rabies spatiotemporal analysis of 35-year monitoring data to study determinants and patters of the current disease situation.

Materials and methods. Using Microsoft Access (relational database management system www.microsoft.com) the data on rabies outbreaks in the Russian Federation, rabies vaccination among wild animals and natural and agricultural zoning were aggregated. For spatial analysis, all epizootiological data were geocoded and visualized as vector map layers within the GIS thematic project. The GIS project was constructed using QGIS Desktop platform (www.qgis.org).

Results. The current rabies distribution area covers most of the Russian regions. The area of persistently high rabies incidence primarily encompasses the forest-steppe, mixed forest, and broadleaf forest biomes of the East European Plain. In the Russian Federation, the maximum number of rabies cases is reported among foxes. Rabies epizootics in natural ecosystems exhibit spillover effects, leading to active transmission among multiple domestic animal species. The primary risk group involves dogs, cats and cattle. Oral rabies vaccination of wild carnivores established a significant downward trend in animal rabies incidence while reducing amplitude fluctuations in long-term epizootic cycle.

Conclusion. The observed decline in rabies incidence across the Russian Federation has not been accompanied by a proportional reduction in the disease’s geographic distribution. These findings underscore the need to modify current control measures and implement a comprehensive program for complete elimination of circulating Lyssavirus rabies strains from infected ecosystems.

Introduction. The Lower Volga region, including the Volgograd Oblast, remains one of Russia’s most rabies-affected areas to date. Data on the genetic diversity of rabies viruses (RABVs) currently circulating in the Volgograd Oblast are insufficient, making phylogenetic analysis of RABV isolates from this region a relevant scientific objective.

Objective. The study aims to conduct a phylogenetic analysis of current RABV isolates recovered from animals in the Volgograd Oblast, based on the full-length nucleoprotein gene sequence.

Materials and methods. Brain tissue samples from animals diagnosed with rabies were used. The obtained nucleotide sequences of the RABV nucleoprotein gene were analyzed using the Bayesian strict molecular clock method. The spatial distribution of RABV isolates was described using Natural Earth physical map.

Results. Full-length nucleoprotein gene sequencing was performed for 13 RABV isolates collected in the Volgograd Oblast. Phylogenetic analysis revealed that the RABV population in this region comprises distinct genetic variants of genetic group C, formed at different times. Genetic relationship to the isolates from Kazakhstan, Ukraine, Moldova and Central/Southern Russia indicates intensive RABV circulation in Southern European Russia. Notably, distinct virus variants were detected on the left and right banks of the Volga River.

Conclusion. All studied RABV isolates collected in the Volgograd Oblast belonged to genetic group C and exhibited high genetic diversity among variants.

Introduction. The following factors can impact the reliability of polymerase chain reaction diagnosis: operator errors, amplifier malfunction, presence of reaction inhibitors in the sample, poor reagent quality and others. All this can lead to the so-called false negative results.

Objective. Construction of the internal control based on heterologous Newcastle disease virus for detection of rabies virus by polymerase chain reaction.

Materials and methods. Dry live vaccine against Newcastle disease based on LaSota strain produced by the Federal Centre for Animal Health (Russia) was used as an internal control. RNA extraction from samples was performed with “Ribosorb” reagent kit (Central Research Institute for Epidemiology of the Rospotrebnadzor, Russia). Promega Corporation reagents (USA) and oligonucleotides manufactured by the Syntol Company (Russia) were used for the reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction.

Results. LaSota strain of Newcastle disease virus was selected as the target for the internal control. The primers were designed. Experiments showed that the PCR system for the internal control did not compete with the PCR system for the rabies virus when they were used together.The main parameters of reverse transcription and polymerase reaction were optimized. The developed method was validated using several key parameters: correctness, specificity, sensitivity, repeatability (intermediate precision under same conditions), and reproducibility (intermediate precision under different conditions). Validation results have shown that the method characteristics comply with the required ones.

Conclusion. Newcastle disease virus LaSota strain-based internal control has been constructed for use together with reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction assay for rabies virus detection that allows control of the assay stages in each reaction tube. This internal control after its proper optimization can be also used in experimental studies carried out at relevant research institutions for PCR diagnosis of the diseases caused by other RNA-containing viruses.

Introduction. The widespread antibiotic resistance among representatives of the Escherichia coli species is an acute problem for livestock and poultry farms, since this pathogen is the most frequently registered component of the etiological structure of gastrointestinal diseases in young farm animals and poultry, and is also often detected in diseases of other organs and systems. Even now, in many farms, the use of antibacterial drugs to treat diseases caused by this pathogen is difficult due to the circulation of strains with multiple resistance to most antibiotics used in veterinary practice. It is known that over time, the sensitivity of a microorganism to various groups of antibacterial drugs changes, often quite significantly. Sensitivity monitoring can help contain the spread of antibiotic resistance and optimally select drugs for use in therapy.

Objective. Analysis and systematization of the research results presented in the scientific literature on the resistance of Escherichia coli to antibacterial drugs.

Materials and methods. A search was conducted for scientific papers on this topic in scientific journals and materials of scientific and practical conferences.

Results. This article presents and summarizes literature data on trends in Escherichia coli resistance to antibacterial drugs.

Conclusion. Escherichia coli resistance is most often demonstrated to β-lactam antibacterial drugs, aminoglycosides, as well as tetracyclines, macrolides (erythromycin) and lincosamides (lincomycin). In almost all studies, Escherichia coli exhibits polyresistance (resistance to two or more drugs) and in some cases, multiresistance (resistance to at least one drug from three or more groups). The results of susceptibility determination in many studies differ significantly from each other, which is associated with different conditions for the formation of antibiotic resistance in bacteria on different livestock enterprises. For a more accurate assessment of the dynamics of the spread of antibiotic resistance within the Escherichia coli species, it is necessary to continue studying the sensitivity to antimicrobial drugs of various strains detected in livestock and poultry farms, as well as from environmental objects.

Introduction. Inflammation is a complex biological process essential for host defense against pathogens and tissue repair. This process is regulated by a variety of signaling molecules, among which purines and cytokines play an important role. Purinergic signaling mediated by adenosine triphosphate, adenosine monophosphate, and other nucleotides plays a key role in regulating immune responses and inflammatory processes. The cytokine network, including interleukins, tumor necrosis factor α and other molecules, is also an important component of inflammation, providing communication between cells of the immune system and regulating their activity. Understanding the purinergic signaling and the cytokine network interaction mechanisms is crucial for developing innovative treatments for inflammatory diseases.

Objective. To synthesize current research findings on the role of purinergic signaling and the cytokine network in inflammatory processes within animal models.

Materials and methods. 55 scientific publications by Russian and international authors (2000–2021) investigating the effects of nucleotides, nucleosides, and purinergic receptors on immune response development, macrophage activation, and cytokine release mechanisms were analyzed. Source databases included eLIBRARY.RU, CyberLeninka, PubMed, NCBI, ResearchGate, CABI, and Google Scholar.

Results. The analysis explored mechanisms of the inflammatory response, including the role of various cells and molecules – cytokines and receptors – in the regulation of the immune response. The latter plays an important role in activating immune system cells and regulating inflammatory reactions. The process of adenosine triphosphate dephosphorylation by CD39 and CD73 enzymes, which promotes the production of adenosine and the activation of anti-inflammatory mechanisms, is discussed.The functions of pro-inflammatory cytokines such as interleukin-1, tumor necrosis factor α and interleukin-6 are analyzed in the context of macrophage activation and neutrophil migration to the site of inflammation. The importance of regulating these processes is emphasized in order to prevent excessive inflammatory response and ensure homeostasis. The mechanisms of transition between the phases of inflammation are examined, including the role of anti-inflammatory cytokines such as interleukin-10 and transforming growth factor β in controlling neutrophil activity and resolving the inflammatory process.

Conclusion. Further study of this topic can deepen the modern knowledge of scientists about the mechanisms of inflammation and create the basis for the development of innovative therapeutic strategies aimed at treating diseases caused by disorders of the immune system.

Introduction. Currently, Mycoplasma dispar is widely spread and circulating in livestock farms around the world, including in the Russian Federation. The implementation of a real-time polymerase chain reaction test kit for detecting Mycoplasma dispar DNA in veterinary practice is highly relevant, as this pathogen can cause respiratory diseases in cattle and contribute to calf mortality, leading to significant economic losses in livestock production.

Objective. To introduce a newly developed real-time polymerase chain reaction test kit Mycoplasma dispar DNA detection kit into veterinary practice and determine its major validation parameters.

Materials and methods. Mycoplasma dispar reference strain (ATCC No. 27140) was cultured in 1699 Revised Mycoplasma Medium recommended by the American Type Culture Collection. DNA was extracted using a commercial kit, real-time polymerase chain reaction was performed using pre-selected parameters. The major validation parameters of the test kit were determined: analytical sensitivity, analytical specificity, amplification efficiency, repeatability and reproducibility. Applicability of real-time polymerase chain reaction test kit for detection of Mycoplasma dispar DNA was demonstrated.

Results. The Mycoplasma dispar DNA detection test kit demonstrated an analytical sensitivity (detection limit) of 10 copies/μL (100 copies/reaction), 100% specificity (exclusive to Mycoplasma dispar DNA), 99.01% amplification efficiency, and an average repeatability coefficient of variation of 0.91%. Reproducibility coefficient of variation ranged from 0.66% to 1.26% across 5 replicates and was 0.91% across 15 replicates. The test kit was validated using 228 biological samples from cattle from 13 regions of the Russian Federation, while Mycoplasma dispar DNA was detected in 39.47% of the samples tested.

Conclusion. The developed Mycoplasma dispar DNA test kit has demonstrated high validation performance and is suitable for diagnosing bovine mycoplasmosis.

Introduction. Foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) is a highly contagious, economically significant disease of cloven-hoofed animals, characterized by vesicular symptoms. There are seven known foot-and-mouth disease virus (FMDV) serotypes (A, O, C, SAT 1, SAT 2, SAT 3 and Asia 1), which immunologically differ from each other. Special attention has been recently paid to FMDV of SAT2/XIV topotype (South African Territories 2) due to its rapid spread. One of the key methods of FMD control is vaccination and assessment of the susceptible animal immune status.

Objective. Development and testing of an enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) system based on the indirect liquid-phase blocking ELISA for the determination of antibodies to structural proteins of SAT2/XIV FMDV in order to evaluate the effectiveness of an FMD vaccine based on SAT-2/XIV/2023 FMDV antigen in the process of its production and subsequent use.

Materials and methods. The test material included experimental serum samples collected from cattle, pigs and white mice. The developed ELISA test system for assessing the level of post-vaccination antibodies against SAT2/XIV FMDV was validated through comparative testing with commercial test-kits: Test-kit for the determination of SAT 2 FMDV antibodies (Federal Centre for Animal Health, Russia) and “Solid-phase competitive ELISA for antibodies specific to FMDV serotype SAT 2”(IZSLER & The Pirbright Institute, Italy/Great Britain).

Results. The effectiveness of the proposed test system in detecting the induction of antibodies against SAT2/XIV FMDV was higher than that of other ELISA systems with the pronounced topotype specificity to the SAT2/VII FMD agent. Specific antibodies were detected in individual cattle on day 7 post vaccination. High diagnostic sensitivity (90%), specificity (98%) and accuracy (95%) ensured high degree of the ELISA results consistency with the known diagnostic status of the tested animals (k-criterion – 0.896).

Conclusion. Thus, the ELISA system for assessing humoral immunity against SAT2/XIV FMDV, which is 100% homologous with the vaccine strain and demonstrates high diagnostic parameters, is a reliable tool for assessing the quality of the SAT2/XIV FMD vaccine.

Introduction. Bacterial communities significantly affect the overall productivity of agricultural establishments, as animal health, milk production, and food quality and safety depend on them. Zoonotic bacteria not only have a negative impact on animal health, but also pose a risk to public health, so monitoring of the microbial species diversity on dairy farms to determine the predominant pathogen species and antibiotic resistance profiles is essential.

Objective. Study of bacterial species diversity on a dairy farm and monitoring of antibiotic resistance spread in Escherichia coli and Proteus mirabilis isolates in order to enable timely development of measures containing the spread of antibiotic-resistant microorganisms.

Materials and methods. To achieve this goal, microorganisms were identified by MALDI-ToF mass spectrometry and antibiotic susceptibility of the isolated cultures was determined using the disc diffusion test.

Results. The species diversity of microorganisms isolated from samples of cattle limb wound exudates, feces, and feed was established. Opportunistic and pathogenic Escherichia coli and Proteus mirabilis turned out to be the predominant microorganisms, and their antibiotic resistance profiles were determined. One of the Escherichia coli isolates was found to be multi-resistant; only a combination of amoxicillin and clavulanic acid proved effective in inhibiting the growth of this culture. A large proportion of Proteus mirabilis isolates were resistant to drugs included in the group of fluoroquinolones and sensitive to all other tested antibacterial agents.

Conclusion. The factors influencing the microbial species diversity in wound exudate, feces and feed were reported. Determination of Enterobacteriaceae antibiotic resistance profiles will allow for the rotation of antibacterial drugs on the studied livestock farms.

Introduction. Censuses of phylogenetic diversity of bacteria colonizing the intestinal tract of clinically healthy poultry conducted over the past decade indicate that up to 60% of genera present in the gut microbiome contain spore-forming bacteria, accounting for 30% of total gut microbiota. Benefits associated with using probiotics containing Bacillus spore-forming bacteria have been documented. Analysis of the prevalence of hemolytic and potential biofilm-forming activity, as well as antibiotic resistance in poultry gut spore-forming microbiota is essential for understanding the true role of aerobic spore-formers of the Bacillus genus in avian gut microbiome ecology.

Objective. Identification and investigation of biological characteristics (hemolytic activity, potential biofilm-forming capacity and antibiotic resistance) of Bacillus bacterial isolates obtained from the large intestine of poultry.

Materials and methods. Spore-forming bacteria were isolated from cecal content through sample heat treatment. Phenotypic identification was performed using API 50CHB biochemical test panels (bioMérieux, France). Hemolytic properties were assessed using Columbia agar (HiMedia Laboratories Pvt Ltd., India) supplemented with 5% sterile defibrinated sheep blood; catalase activity was assessed using 10% hydrogen peroxide according to General Pharmacopoeia Monograph GPM.1.7.2.0012.15; antibiotic sensitivity was assessed with disk diffusion test involving standard antibiotic-impregnated disks (5–30 μg/disk). Biofilm-producing, spore-forming bacteria were tested qualitatively using brain-heart infusion agar (BHI; HiMedia Laboratories Pvt Ltd., India) supplemented with Congo red and 5% sucrose.

Results. It was established that the cecal aerobic spore-forming microbiota in poultry comprised B. licheniformis, B. subtilis/amyloliquefaciens, B. mycoides, B. megaterium and B. cereus. All tested isolates were catalase-positive and lacked α-hemolytic activity. Some isolates demonstrated β-hemolytic activity. The overwhelming majority exhibited biofilm-forming phenotypes and showed susceptibility to tested antibiotics.

Conclusion. Vegetative forms of Bacillus spore-forming bacteria may potentially persist in or temporarily associate with the complex gut ecosystem. Hemolytically active intestinal isolates cannot be considered safe until the effects of this virulence factor on animals are clarified. These findings provide a basis for selecting candidate Bacillus strains for probiotic development.

Introduction. Although antibiotics represent one of humanity’s greatest discoveries, their improper use can cause significant harm and lead to severe consequences. Objective. Testing of animal product samples followed by Salmonella spp. isolation, typing, identification and assessment of their antimicrobial resistance dynamics.

Materials and methods. The study was carried out at the Department for Microbiological Testing of the Vladimir Testing Laboratory of the Federal Centre for Animal Health. The disc diffusion test was used to determine bacteria resistance to antibiotics. The sizes of the microorganism growth inhibition zones were interpreted according to the Russian recommendations “Determination of the sensitivity of microorganisms to antimicrobial drugs” (IACMAC, version 2025-01), prepared on the basis of the European Committee on Antimicrobial Susceptibility Testing (EUCAST) recommendations and using CLSI M100 standard. PETSAL® monovalent and polyvalent O- and H-sera (The Saint Petersburg Scientific Research Institute ofVaccines and Serums of the FMBA of Russia) were used for serological identification. Antimicrobial resistance genes (blaCTX-M, blaOXA10, blaDHA, blaDES, blaKPC, blaOXA48-like, blaNDM, blaVIM) were identified by real-time polymerase chain reaction using the RESISTOM test systems (“LITECH”Co. Ltd., Russia).

Results. Forty-two Salmonella spp. isolates were recovered from animal product samples in 2022–2024. S. Enteritidis was the most frequently isolated serovar, and Salmonella spp. were predominantly isolated from poultry meat products. The detected isolates demonstrated maximum resistance to benzylpenicillin, erythromycin, norfloxacin, and tetracycline. Most of the isolates showed multiple resistance to several antimicrobials. Increased resistance to cephalosporins, fluoroquinolones, tetracyclines, aminoglycosides, chloramphenicol/levomycetin and sulfamethoxazole/trimethoprim was demonstrated for Salmonella spp. isolates. No antimicrobial resistance genes were detected when the isolates were tested with real-time polymerase chain reaction.

Conclusion. The study demonstrated widespread antimicrobial resistance, including multiple resistance, among Salmonella spp. isolates detected in animal products in 2022–2024.